The Last Dance Mania of the Medieval World

Imagine you were one of them...

In Strasbourg, in July 1518, the last big dancing plague took place. It was started by Frau Troffea, who, one day, left her house, went out on the street, and started moving in a way that many said resembled some kind of dance. Eventually, an exhausted middle-aged woman was dragged up the mountain to the Saint Vitus shrine, the patron saint of people with epilepsy, in the hope she'd stop. In the meantime, many others took to the streets dancing. By the summer's end, about 400 people were plagued with dancing, and some of them died.

If this event, and similar others that occurred throughout Europe, is still unexplained today, it is because historians have focused mainly on the lives and the doings of people in power, and for centuries, the rest of us were regarded (and discarded) as expandable.

The Dancing Plague of Strasbourg was an awkward occurrence even for the people of the time. But we know more about it because it involved a larger population over a few summer weeks, and city officials tried different methods to end the madness without success. Among other cases of choreomania, this is the best documented because of the recordings made by the council of Strasbourg and other eyewitnesses.

At the time, Strasbourg was a significant political and commercial center, a mix of cultural influences and traditions in the Holy Roman Empire at the French border. Its history goes back to the Roman Empire in the second century BC when it was called Argentoratum. The city was the capital of a free-standing republic controlled by guilds until 1681 when it was incorporated into the French kingdom. As for religion, the inhabitants were mainly Catholics except for pockets of the Jewish population. Just a few months before, on October 1517, Martin Luther revolutionized the religious landscape by posting his 95 Theses to reform the catholic church. Although his ideas spread like fire, aided by the new printing press technology, it would be a few more years before Strasbourg adhered to Protestantism. This is still important as Protestants do not recognize saints, and St Vitus was one of the protagonists in the dancing mania of 1518.

The dancing plague began in July 1518, when a woman known to us by the name of Frau Troffea began to dance uncontrollably, followed by dozens in just a week and jumping, within a month, to hundreds of people dancing compulsively. Both men and women, young and old, were affected, and many danced for days or even weeks. They danced restlessly and helplessly. Some collapsed, exhausted. Their feet were bruised, scratched, raw, infected. Some died of strokes or other causes.

Contemporaries tried to find the cause of this plague, and in doing so, they advanced numerous theories. From Paracelsus, who blamed women for trying to make fools of their husbands through this behavior, to the medics of medieval Strasbourg, who advanced the "overheated blood" theory, or simply, fever, they all tried to find an explanation for what was happening.

The hypotheses were wild, but the actions to stop it were insignificant. The Council of Strasbourg, after listening to their doctors who said that the cure rests in sweating the bad blood through…more dancing! decided to encourage the mania. So they cleared out the city's horse market space and built a dancing ring, encouraging people to join in, plagued or not. To make it seem more natural, they also hired musicians, tambourines, fiddlers, pipes, and so on, to sing the dancing tune. They copied the Tarantella example from Southern Italy, where people believed in curing spider bites by incessant dancing. But the dancing plague didn't stop. More people joined in, pretending to be entranced because the officials provided free food and drink. Some women even hope to cure infertility or other illnesses.

But a few days into this continuous dancing, weaker people started to die. One source records 15 deaths in one day. The authorities, seeing that the bad blood hadn't been eradicated, stopped the music and the voluntary choreomania, and dismantled the stage. They deduced that the physicians were wrong, and the affliction must be a curse—a damnation.

Officials took further measures like confining people to their homes and banning fine clothing and jewelry, and ultimately when everything else failed, they gathered the remaining maniacs, tied them up on carriages to prevent falls or running away, and climbed the steep hills that ascend the mountains to St. Vitus shrine. There, the dancers were given red shoes and left to the mercy of the Saint. We do not have information about what happened to them. It came to us that the city regained its normalcy shorter afterward, and no other case of the dancing plague was recorded in the region. As a fan fact, the last recorded choreomania case was in Madagascar in 1863.

Today, Strasbourg is the host for the Council of Europe, an organization created to protect democracy and human rights.

 

Here is a summary of the last big dancing plague of Europe:

The Dancing Plague of 1518, which took place in Strasbourg (Alsace), then part of the Holy Roman Empire, is one of history's most unusual and puzzling events. Here are some key facts about it:

1.    Outbreak Origin: The dancing plague began in July 1518 when a woman named Frau Troffea stepped into the streets of Strasbourg and began to dance uncontrollably. For a week, dozens of people joined her in this strange, compulsive dancing.

2.    Number of Participants: It is reported that 400 people were dancing within a month, seemingly unable to stop.

3.    Symptoms: Participants appeared to be in a trance-like state. They danced without rest, and many reportedly collapsed from exhaustion, with some even dying from heart attacks, strokes, or sheer fatigue.

4.    Attempts to Control It: Authorities in Strasbourg believed a fever or supernatural affliction caused the dancing. They initially tried to encourage the dancing by setting up music and professional dancers, hoping it would "burn itself out." This strategy backfired, as even more people were drawn into the plague.

5.    Religious Explanations: At the time, religious authorities believed the event was a punishment from St. Vitus, the patron saint of dancers and epileptics. People thought the dancers were cursed or had angered the Saint.

6.    Cures: Eventually, after other interventions failed, the authorities banned music and dancing and built a shrine for St. Vitus. The dancers were taken to the shrine, where religious rituals were performed to heal them.

7.    Possible Causes:

o   Mass Hysteria or Psychogenic Illness: Many modern historians and psychologists believe the event was a case of mass hysteria (now called mass psychogenic illness). People may have been under significant stress due to famine, disease, and harsh living conditions, and the outbreak was a physical manifestation of collective psychological distress.

o   Ergotism: Another theory suggests the dancing plague might have been caused by ergotism, a condition resulting from eating bread made from grain infected with ergot, a hallucinogenic mold. Ergot poisoning can cause convulsions and hallucinations, but this theory is debated since not all symptoms match.

8.    End of the Plague: After several weeks, the dancing gradually subsided. The plague ended by September 1518, but the event left a lasting mark on the region.

9.  Legacy: The Strasbourg dancing plague is one of the most famous examples of "dance mania" or "choreomania," a phenomenon recorded in various parts of medieval and early modern Europe. However, the 1518 outbreak was one of the largest and most well-documented instances.

This example of bizarre human behavior remains one of history's unsolved mysteries, as its exact causes are still debated. 

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Step Into a Victorian Bedroom: Décor, Daily Life, and Traditions

 

Sometimes, we wonder how people lived a long time ago, trying to wrap our heads around some strange traditions and questionable practices; other times, we are surprised at how similar our lives are and how little has changed. Take, for example, the bedroom. It had served the same basic purpose throughout history, except that its functionality had been enhanced or downgraded at times according to needs and, most importantly, trends. Let's look today at the Victorian bedroom - that is, in the Victorian Era in England between 1820 and 1914.

The bedroom, both in Victorian times and today, serves as a private, personal space for rest and retreat from the outside world. In both eras, the bedroom is where people unwind, sleep, and clean themselves, with furniture like beds, dressers, and mirrors remaining central. Though the décor and daily routines may differ, the bedroom's role as a space for intimacy, comfort, and personal rituals—whether it's dressing, reading, or simply resting—remains a constant. Let's enter the Victorian bedroom and take in the life of its occupant(s).

Queen Victoria's bedroom at Windsor Castle as painted by William Corden the Younger

First, furniture and Décor

Victorian bedrooms were known for their heavy, ornate furniture. Beds often featured intricately carved headboards made of dark woods like mahogany, oak, or walnut, and many had four posters or canopies. Beyond the bed, essential pieces included large wardrobes (closets were rare), washstands for morning ablutions, and dressing tables with mirrors. The upholstery was often plush, using rich fabrics like velvet and brocade in deep colors—crimson, burgundy, or dark greens. Oil lamps, brass candlesticks, and porcelain vases were standard for accessories. Decorative items like lace doilies and embroidered cushions added a feminine touch. Victorian walls were often covered in patterned wallpaper with floral motifs or damask prints. Popular colors included dark reds, golds, and greens, though paler hues like lavender were used in upper-class homes.

Daily Life in the Bedroom

In the Victorian era, bedrooms were multifunctional spaces, especially in middle—and upper-class homes. Morning and evening grooming rituals took place, particularly for women who spent significant time brushing their hair and applying face creams at their dressing tables. For men, too, it was a private space to dress, shave, and occasionally read.

Morning routines involved using washbasins and jugs of water to wash the face and hands. Hairbrushes, combs, and pomades for men and hairpins and perfume for women were arranged on dressing tables.

In more affluent homes, bedrooms were sometimes equipped with writing desks for letter writing or prayer books for personal devotions. Wealthy women might spend hours here, away from the bustle of household management.

Class Differences in Bedroom Layout

The wealthy's bedrooms were spacious, often featuring separate dressing rooms or even boudoirs attached for added privacy and comfort. Bedrooms might include large bay windows with heavy draperies, Persian rugs, and marble-topped washstands. Fireplaces were common in larger homes to keep the room warm.

In contrast, working-class families typically had far less space. They often shared bedrooms among several family members, and furnishing was minimal. Sometimes, several family members slept in a single bed. In rural or poorer urban homes, personal space was scarce, and the bedroom could double as storage or workspace. 

A Small Gentry Victorian Bedroom in Scotland

Health and Hygiene

Contemporary beliefs about health and hygiene also shaped the Victorian bedroom. Ventilation was a major concern, as many Victorians believed that "miasmas" (bad air) could cause illness. This led to installing windows that could open wide and fireplaces in bedrooms to ensure proper air circulation. Heavy drapes could be drawn to keep out cold drafts in winter.

Complete with a jug and basin, washstands were essential for washing up before bed. Toothbrushes and handkerchiefs were typically kept in the bedroom. Chamber pots, or night pots, were placed under beds or in cabinets for use during the night.

Bedrooms were often used for recovery when sick, with family members and servants bringing meals and tending to the sick person. Sick rooms were meticulously cleaned, and bed linens were changed frequently to prevent the spread of disease.

Privacy and Social Norms

The concept of privacy became more defined in the Victorian era. Bedrooms were seen as intimate, private spaces, especially in wealthier homes. They were off-limits to guests, and strict gender roles played a part in how they were used. Even married couples were used to having separate bedrooms, especially if the couple belonged to the upper class. This allowed each person to maintain their personal space while still enjoying shared intimacy when desired.

Children's rooms, when they had them, were often located in separate wings or on different floors. The Victorian ideal of childhood as a time of innocence meant that children's rooms were considered sacred spaces to shield them from adult concerns.

Victorian Children's Bedrooms

Victorian children's bedrooms were designed to reflect the era's emphasis on childhood innocence and discipline. Wealthier households often had these rooms brightly decorated, adding toys and small furniture. Cots, cradles, and small wooden chairs were common. Toy chests, dollhouses, and stuffed animals would also be found in the bedrooms of wealthier families. In a nursery room, you can often see wallpapers with floral or animal prints that stimulate a child's imagination.

Many children's bedrooms would contain educational materials such as alphabet blocks, small desks, and books to foster learning from an early age. For working-class children, however, toys were often homemade, and their "bedroom" might be a shared bed in a cramped space with their siblings.

Bedtime Rituals and Sleep

The Victorian approach to sleep was heavily ritualized. Wealthy Victorians took great care in their bedtime routines, often involving wearing specialized nightclothes like nightgowns, nightcaps, and slippers.

Women would remove their elaborate day clothing, often with the help of a maid, and dress in simple cotton nightgowns. Nightcaps were worn to keep the head warm, as the belief was that cold air caused illnesses. While the very wealthy might enjoy luxurious feather beds and linen sheets, the lower classes typically slept on straw mattresses or makeshift beds stuffed with hay or rags.

Some Victorians believed that too much light could disrupt sleep and cause illness, so heavy drapes or shutters were used to block out moonlight. In addition, night lights or candles were used to keep the room dimly lit for safety.

Victorian nightdress by Thomas Quine

This is just a general overview of the Victorian bedroom. But even during the conservative Queen Victoria's reign, things changed. Details were added or subtracted, habits acquired or dropped, ideas brought to life or buried. When your writing is set in a specific year or decade, it is advisable to look into details, especially if we are speaking about the lower classes, as much has changed due to the rapid industrialization of England's cities.

Check out this worksheet to help you in your research. 

The Victorian Bedroom: A Worksheet for Your Story

I also have a comprehensive guide and worksheet for extensive historical research. You can visit my store or buy it here. 

 

 

Women in Early Modern England (1550-1750)

 

Facts, Trivia, Common Beliefs

 When writing historical fiction set in Early Modern England (1550-1750), it's essential to portray characters and settings with accuracy and authenticity. This period, rich in cultural, social, and political transformations, presents unique challenges and opportunities for writers seeking to create believable female characters.

Women in this era navigated a world shaped by rigid social hierarchies, religious influence, and evolving gender roles. Their lives were marked by various experiences—from work and education to marriage and societal expectations. Understanding these aspects is crucial for writers aiming to capture the essence of the time.

This guide provides a brief overview of women's lives during the Early Modern period in England. From the types of work they engaged in and the common beliefs and societal norms they encountered, here are some insights into the daily realities and challenges faced by women. Whether you are crafting a protagonist who defies convention or a supporting character whose life reflects the typical experiences of the time, these facts, trivia, and common beliefs will help you create a more accurate and compelling narrative.

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 Work

• Unmarried women were legally obligated to work.
• Some women became teachers, opening schools in their homes to teach children to read religious texts.
• Midwifery was a common occupation, requiring a license from the Church.
• Women also worked in the textile industry, producing laces, ribbons, spinning, weaving, and dyeing fabrics from home.
• Other jobs included running shops, printing houses, working in fields (especially farmer's wives), or working as laundresses.
• Girls aged 14 to 21 could start apprenticeships, which were common and contributed to a higher average marriage age for commoners compared to aristocrats.
• Marriage was forbidden during an apprenticeship.

 Relationships

• Couples sometimes became engaged or betrothed through a promise or an engagement ceremony known as handfasting.
• It was illegal to marry someone else while engaged.
• In 1753, the English Parliament adopted the Marriage Act.
• To marry, men and women simply had to declare themselves husband and wife to each other.
• A housewife's primary duty was to her husband, followed by the rest of the household, including children, relatives, servants, and other employees.
• Housewives were expected to treat minor illnesses and know remedies and herbal cures.

Society Trivia

• A poorly regarded job was that of night-soil men who cleaned toilets at night.
• Residents were required to clean the outdoor areas around their homes; failure to do so resulted in fines.
• Donkey milk was a standard drink sold by dairymaids who milked the animal on demand at customers' homes.
• There were separate guilds for white bread and brown bread.
• Dogs known as turnspits helped with meat roasting by running in a wheel to keep the spit turning.
• People owned personal cutlery, spoons, and knives, which they took along when traveling.
• The bodies of convicts could be dissected after death.

Girls' and Women's Problems

• Greensickness, now known as hypochromic anemia, was commonly treated with marriage.
• Terms for menstruation included "flowers" (e.g., "she has her flowers upon her"), "courses," "terms," "catamenia," "unwell," "monthly sickness," "gift of nature," and "a time common to women."
• Under the humoral theory, eating fruits was believed to cause illness due to their wet properties.
• If a woman concealed her pregnancy and the baby died (or was murdered), she was tried and, if found guilty, hanged.
• Wealthy people had wedding celebrations that included a bride cake made of wheat and barley, eaten by the bride and groom as they said their vows. The party might feature a mary-bone pie, filled with marrowbone and oysters, considered aphrodisiacs.
• After giving birth, women were advised by the Church to "lay in" (rest in bed) for 30 days if they had a baby girl and 60 days if they had a baby boy.

Common Beliefs

• It was commonly believed that "a maid that is 'fat, sleek, fair, and full' is better liked than 'lean, lank, spare, and dull'" – Thomas Lodge (1558-1625), A Fig for Momus.
• Sumptuary laws regulated dress codes according to social class.
• Suicide was considered "self-murder," and those who committed suicide had their estates confiscated.
• One girl attempted suicide by smoking spiders (believed to be poisonous), locking herself under floor beds, and reopening old wounds.
• Adolescent girls commonly experienced a religious crisis.

Education

• Protestant women were more literate and were encouraged to keep diaries.
• Puritan women made anagrams from their names to see if they were chosen for heaven or damnation, reflecting Calvin’s theory of predestination.
• Scolding women were punished with the scold's bridle if found guilty.
• During the English Civil Wars, women protested in front of Parliament, including an event in 1643 where 300 women gathered for peace, wearing white ribbons in their hats. The next day, the number grew to 5,000.
• Some noblewomen involved themselves in politics:
• Brilliana, Lady Harley, defended Harley Castle in North Welsh in her husband's absence by putting up an armed resistance.
• Lady Ann Halkett helped the 14-year-old Duke of York, later King James II, flee to France.
• Elizabeth Murray, a royalist, spied for her party.
• By the mid-17th century, only 10% of women in England could sign their names, although more may have been able to read, as reading and writing were separate subjects.
• The keeping of a commonplace book was encouraged by reformed religions as part of "personal reflection on piety."
• In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, Cecilia Fiennes traveled through England on horseback, documenting her experiences. A book based on her memoirs, Through England on a Side Saddle in the Time of William and Mary, was published in 1888.
• Isabella Whitney (1566–1573) was the first woman to write poetry for publication.

 This structure organizes the information by category, making it easier to navigate and understand the various aspects of women's lives in Early Modern England.

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Women’s Spaces in a Medieval Italian City

 

When writing a novel set in Italy at the height of the Renaissance, one must be mindful of the physical presence of characters. In medieval and Renaissance times, the physical division of spaces was not just by household but by gender. Women and men did not share the same spaces, as they did not share the same lives, whether in private homes, neighborhoods, or public areas.

The Gendered Geography of Urban Spaces

Urban centers were male-controlled domains. Men were the governors, judges, police, lawmakers, and bankers. Women, on the other hand, were confined to private and domestic spaces. Jealous husbands and overprotective fathers kept a watchful eye on their wives and daughters, often restricting their movements.

Impressions from Travelers

Medieval Italian cities were famous tourist destinations even then, drawing travelers from across Europe. Many left behind memoirs and notes, which give us insight into how women lived during this era. These travelers were often shocked by the scarcity of women in public spaces, especially compared to the streets of their own European homelands. The women they did see moved quickly, wrapped in mantles and veils.

Forbidden Spaces for Women

For many women, stepping into the streets of Italian cities was akin to entering a forbidden world. There were certain spaces, like piazzas and guild halls, where women were rarely seen and never truly welcome, and if they must enter, it was often dangerous.

Noblewomen: Indoors and Out of Sight

The daily life of noblewomen was one of seclusion. Most of their time was spent indoors, often in rooms at the back of the house, without windows to avoid being seen by outsiders. These women had limited social contact, even with their neighbors, and rarely ventured out. They were mostly alone, sometimes spending time with children and other women of the extended family.

Chaperoned Outings and Restricted Movements

When noblewomen did leave the house, they were often accompanied by an older chaperone, usually hired by a male relative. The most common destination for women was the church, and they either traveled on foot or by carriage. When walking, they wore platform shoes called "zaccoli" or "chapiney," which, though high, were not meant to protect their skirts from mud but rather to limit their mobility.

The Dangers of the Streets for Working Women

For working-class women, venturing into the streets was a necessity, often to provide for their family, but it came with risks. The streets were unsafe, and many women faced harassment or the threat of violence. Jobs that required women to leave the home were scarce and included professions like midwives, servants, and laundresses.

Laundresses: Women in Public Spaces

One of the few female-dominated professions that involved spending significant time in public was that of the laundress, or lavandiere. These women brought laundry to public fountains, many of which were located in the city’s piazzas, spaces male-exclusive. Here, they were at risk of being caught in the middle of stone fights between gangs or harassed by men.

Prostitutes’ Quarters: A Rare Female-Dominated Space

The only public spaces where women exercised significant control were the courtesans’ and prostitutes’ quarters. Isolated from other parts of the city, these areas were managed by women, though men were the customers. In places like Renaissance Florence, these quarters were located in the heart of the city.

The Significance of Controlled Movement

The geography of the medieval Italian city reflects a broader truth about gender dynamics at the time: women’s movements were controlled, restricted, and dominated by men. Even in spaces where they had some degree of freedom, such as churches or prostitutes’ quarters, their roles were still circumscribed by societal norms.

Why Does This Matter for Writers?

Why should writers care about these historical details? Beyond ensuring accuracy, these insights offer a chance to illuminate the struggles and restrictions women faced in the past. Incorporating these obstacles into your story can make for a more compelling heroine, one who must navigate a world dominated by men to achieve her goals. These historical details enrich your plot and offer a deeper connection to your readers.

Why historical context is essential for your historical fiction

 

Historical fiction writers have a hard job. They not only need to write a great story with an engaging plot, settings, dialogues, and unforgettable characters, but they must also keep everything as close to the truth as possible, be accurate, and be knowledgeable about the historical era their novel is set in.

The Doge's Palace in Piazza di San Marco,
Venice Italy, 1735

However, not all writers fit the above description. I've started reading many novels where, a few chapters in, I still had to guess the historical time and event that may have influenced the plot or the characters. And because I didn't know where I was, I stopped reading. I told myself, "Oh, how awesome would have been had they only established some historical context in the first chapter…"

If you are writing historical fiction, here are my reasons (as a reader and a history teacher) why you should consider adding historical context to your work.

Readers can better understand your story (and love it more)

 Remember the fairy tales? Once upon a time, there was a princess who lived in a castle, and every day, she went about her princess business until…

From the first line, the tale reveals the context. The "once upon a time" is a period usually far away in the past, in our imaginary past, a mythologic time, as opposed to the real, present time. The castle she lived in placed her in a geographical space. Although restricted, we do know where she is when the story begins. If we close our eyes, we can almost imagine it. Sometimes, the story tells us she may have been the princess of a specific country, who her parents were, and if they had friends and enemies.

Next, we discover what happens around her when the story takes place and what conditions she lives in. Because of these conditions, the story must rise, sometimes changing them or, other times, freeing herself.

The hero operates within the context of the time, place, and existing conditions. Sometimes, he moves through space (and time) or changes the world, but the reader won't know it if the author fails to tell them. A patient reader may guess, but an impatient one may give up the book altogether. After all, a fiction piece is meant to entertain. The historical context is the starting point.

It helps readers relate to your story

 Most readers carry with them the past of their ancestors. We all came from something; most of us know our grandparents well. We may even know our grand-grandparents and their origin. Some of us come from families with long traditions, some with shorter ones. Few of us don't know or don't care about our family's past.

Imagine knowing that your family immigrated from where the story takes place. Imagine that the story was set in your grandma's birthplace, in the streets she used to walk; imagine the pictures you've seen of that place, and maybe you've even visited. And now you read a book about it. It could have been your family story. Sure, these are fictional characters, but they starkly resemble the real ones.

The goal of a novel is to make readers identify with a character and find an entertaining escape. Give the context, and they won't forget your book. Maybe spread the word.

Readers may learn from your story

How often have you read or heard something and said, "Wow, I didn't know that!" A well-researched and written historical novel could be an endless string of wows. A great way to pass a piece of information, a nugget of wisdom, or a grain of understanding onto your readers. But they won't see it unless you set the stage for it.  

Sometimes, a fact doesn't make sense unless you explain the back story. For historical fiction writers, the back story is called context. Readers will easily get confused if they do not know where they are (like navigating a new city without a map) or if their knowledge is not according to what they read or is incomplete. Historical fiction writers must set the stage with places, dates, important landmarks, and events.

The curiosity factor

Each era has its peculiarities. Some people like regency romance because of the opulence of the upper class. Some would instead read World War II to learn how ordinary people overcame its hardship, or, if it is a combat novel, for the weapons and tactics—or both.

Every era has its charm that appeals to readers, and the job of a historical fiction writer is to dig that charm and make it shine through the pages of the book. Like a magical object, the charm would transport the reader to a time and place where they can escape reality and, if the writer is very skilled, identify with the story's heroes.

The accuracy factor

Context is essential for accurately portraying people, places, and events. Imagine writing a novel set in Egypt during the Ptolemaic Dynasty under Cleopatra's rule. Then imagine every reader thinking that Cleopatra was the most famous Egyptian native! Wouldn't it be wrong? Cleopatra may have had no Egyptian blood, as her family came from Macedonia. Readers will be confused if the book doesn't explain the ruling family, where they come from, how they got the power, and how they passed it on.  

Or imagine writing a piece where the action spans two continents and our hero makes the journey in a year. What took them so long? However, describing the means of transportation in that particular time and place may explain it and teach us what we take for granted today.

A better story

Ultimately, the context makes for a much more exciting story and a much better book.

So, happy writing. 

A Brief History of the Western Calendar

Time is an abstract notion. It takes a trained and smart mind to measure and arrange it into a readable calendar. We have been working on the calendar as we know it today for over one thousand years.

Introduction

Albert Einstein once said, "The only reason for time is so that everything doesn't happen at once." For the genius physicist, this possibility was feasible, but for ancient people, things happened at different moments. They noticed the sun going down, the star rising, the sun going up again, the birth of a child, the death of an elderly person, the plants growing and cropping, the trees changing from green to yellow, and so on.

People did not invent time; they just ordered it, gave it a name, and tried to arrange their lives around it. So, they made calendars and time machines and kept records of their most important events so that now, we would remember them. And we do, as much as we can.

The Babylonians and their calendar

The first ones to divide a year into 12 months were the Babylonians. They observed the rising of the stars, which happens before dawn. Day after day, during a year, they noticed that the sun passes the same stars at the same time. They divided the sky into 12 constellations and a period in which the sun passed a constellation became a month. The month then was divided into thirty days.

Elizabeth Taylor as Cleopatra

This nice arrangement would have worked well if not for the moon. The moon was a very important deity well venerated in many societies. The moon did not have the same cycle as the sun. We know now that the solar cycle is 30.4 days while the moon cycle is about 29.53 days. So, there is a shift of an average of a day for each successive month. The two celestial calendars needed to be corrected. There were many attempts to align the two cycles. Again, about 499 B.C., the Babylonians came up with a plan. In a period of 19 years, the third, fifth, eighth, eleventh, thirteenth, sixteenth, and nineteenth years had an extra month.

Another idea we inherited from the Babylonians was the division of a month into seven seven-day periods, each ending with an "evil day" to please the goods. The days were named after the seven planets that, unlike the stars, appeared to change position.

The division of a day into 24 hours seems to come from Egypt, but later, the Babylonians started to divide an hour into periods of 30s and 60s, which came to us as seconds and minutes. The Babylonians were very good astronomers, and their knowledge spread around the Orient and Occident, reaching China and India, Greece, and Rome.

The Romans and their calendar

When Julius Caesar changed the Roman calendar in 45 B.C., time in ancient Rome was somewhat out of control. The years before his reform were also called "the years of confusion."

Christopher Plummer as Julius Caesar

At first, Rome had a 10-month calendar that began in March. Numa, the second king of Rome, introduced 2 more months. In time, the Romans produced a 24-year cycle with about 355 days/year and leap years of 277 or 278 days, averaging 365.4 days per year in a cycle. Pretty good. But why would they change it? The reason was political. Numa also appointed the Pontiff Maximus (the great priest) to correct the calendar, adding the intercalary months when needed. The pontiffs were also involved in politics. A magistrate position in Rome lasted 1 year, so the pontiffs could make it shorter or longer, according to their interests, by adding or omitting the intercalary months.

By the time Caesar became dictator in Rome (46 B.C.), the calendar was drifting so far away that the crossing of the Rubicon did not take place on January 10, 49 B.C., but earlier in mid-autumn. He started by lengthening the year 46 B.C., introducing the month that had been missing during the " years of confusion." With the help of astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria (little is known about him), Caesar regulated the calendar: a year had 365 days, divided into 12 months, with a leap day added every 4 years to the month of February. Every year began in January, the month that magistrates took office in Rome. This is the calendar we are using today.

Later reforms of the calendar

Pope Gregory XIII

The main reform later introduced to the Julian Calendar was made by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, who decreed that October 5th, 1582, should be October 15th. This 10-day drift was meant to align the calendar year with the tropical year (a period in which the Earth completes an orbit around the Sun).

The reform also slightly corrects the leap years and the time we celebrate Easter.

    The name of the days

•             Sunday - sun's day (Latin Domenica - the day of the Lord)

•             Monday - moon's day (Italian - lunedi - they of the Moon)

•             Tuesday - the day of the Nordic warrior god Tyr (Italian - martedi - Mars' day)

•             Wednesday - the day of the god Odin (Italian - mercoledi - Mercury's day)

•             Thursday - the day of the god Thor (Italian - jovedy - Jupiter's day)

•             Friday - the day of the wife of Odin, goddess Frigg (Italian - venerdi - Venus' day)

•             Saturday - Saturn's day (Italian Sabato - from Jewish Shabbat, the seventh day)

Also from Romans we inherited the name of the months:

1.            January - from Ianus, the god of gates, beginnings and endings

2.            February - from the roman festival of Februa (purification) which took place on February 15th

3.            March - from Mars, the god of war

4.            April - from the Latin term "aperire" that means "to open"

5.            May - from Maia, the Greek goddess of fertility

6.            June - from goddess Juno, the wife of Jupiter

7.            July - from the month when Julius Caesar was born

8.            August - in the honor of emperor Augustus

9.            September - from "septem", that means "seven" because originally it was the seventh month of the year

10.          October - originally the eighth month of the year

11.          November - originally the ninth month of the year

12.          December - originally the tenth month of the year

Year 0 for

•             Christians - year 0 the birth of Jesus (year 4 BC)

•             Romans - 753 BC, foundation of Rome

•             Greeks - 776 BC, the first Olympiads

•             Egyptians - 2773 BC, the introduction of the calendar

•             Chinese - 2637 BC, not sure but this is the year for the first Chinese calendar

•             Jewish - 3761 BC, the date of Creation Muslims - 622 AD, Hegira

Note: I previously published this article in a website called Hubpages. As the website changed its format, I decided to take it down and put it on my own blog. In the future, there would be other articles coming here. Stay tuned. 

On making tools: what would mankind be without tools?

Just look around you and try to discover something that is not—or has not been produced without—a tool. There is the tree, a cloud, the bird...But everything else is or requires a tool: the house you live in, the car you drive, the food you eat, the work you do, and so on.


So, I was just wondering, what would mankind be without tools?
When did the first tool enter our lives?

Yes, we know that about the Stone Age, but it was such a big period of time. The Stone Age covers a little less than 3 million years! Its beginning has been dated back 2.9 million years, and it ended about 5.000 years ago.

Humans have created tools that we regard as “primitive” today. They would have been like the first computers that took up a whole room, compared to a tablet, or like the first chubby mobile phones. But we know that without these beginnings, we wouldn't have tablets or smartphones, right?

So, someone 3 million years ago started the trend, and we follow it till today.
I was trying to imagine how they did it. How a person, if I can say so, or a hominid, more likely a Homo Habilis, have come up with the idea of creating a tool? 

The first tools were made out of stones. You think is easy to pick up a stone and smash a coconut and drink its milk. Then do it again and again, and there you go, you have a tool. But aren't monkeys doing the same thing and even more, and yet they did not pass the picking stage? So, it must be more. It must be that primordial thought that ran through that stone-agers mind.  “What if?” -  they must have said and experimented with it for as long as they needed it. They were not in any hurry. In less than 3 million years, they transformed a river stone into a deadly weapon.

Here is a list of tool-producing techniques from the Paleolithic period in chronological order:
1. Oldowan technique - from river stones,  stones have one sharp edge or one sharp point.

2. Acheulean technique - a sharp edge obtained by chipping a stone to make concave surfaces, known as biface or hand axe.

3. The lithic reduction process discovered by Neanderthals, or Levallois technique - all edges sharp, also smaller stone tools

4. Aurignacian technique - produced sharp, long stone tools intended to be blades (for killing?).

5. Microlithic technique - produced small sharp core stones that were used to be attached to a spear, or later as arrow points.

From this point, humans discovered metals, and the rest is history. So, are we smarter than an Australopithecus? Maybe. But we definitely have more knowledge that we inherited from our stone-age ancestors.